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D6-Lancaster Farming, Saturday, December 18, 1999
EVALUATING
WATER QUALITY
Paul H. Patterson
Associate Professor
Drinking water is the least
expensive nutrient we can provide
to poultry, yet high quality water is
often taken for granted. Water is
also the most important nutrient. It
is critical for many biological
functions including the regulation
of body temperature, aiding diges
tion, metabolism, and the transport
and elimination of wastes.
On a daily basis water is con
sumed in large quantities. Poultry
normally drink about two times the
weight of feed consumed on a dai
ly basis. Consumption is
influenced, however, by the age of
the bird, strain, rate of production,
environmental temperature, type
of feed etc. Depending on the age
and sex of a bird, 55 to 75 percent
of its body is water. The egg at 65
percent is mostly water as well.
Water is a natural solvent con
taining salts of calcium, magne
sium, sodium chloride, sulfates,
and bicarbonates. Water quality is
characterized by its taste, acidity,
alkalinity, odor, color, turbidity,
salinity, pH, hardness, anions,
cations, herbicides, and pesticides.
A definition I find especially good
for poultry says that high quality
water contains inclusions which
promote vitality, and lacks those
causing morbidity and mortality.
In recent times researchers have
attempted to correlate poultry per
formance with water inclusions. A
study from Arkansas looked at
more than 300 commercial broiler
flocks and correlated bird perfor
mance with the concentration of
various water inclusions (Barton et
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al., 1986). The significant results
suggested body weight was posi
tively influenced by water cal
cium, magnesium, hardness, bicar
bonate, and dissolved oxygen.
Water nitrate (NO 3 ) levels had a
negative effect on body weight
Mortality was increased with
increasing calcium and potassium
levels. Higher calcium and nitrate
levels increased condemnation
rate. Feed conversion (feed/gain)
was improved with higher calcium
levels and made worse with greater
magnesium. While the results of
this work were all highly signific
ant for those flocks in Arkansas,
similar evaluations in other reg
ions of the country have resulted in
different findings.
Therefore, many experts now
feel regional water quality differ
ences will have enormous effects,
and simple, single inclusions may
not mean a great deal when it com
es to poultry performance. Rather,
multiple-inclusions may be acting
together to influence flock
performance.
Work by Zimmerman in 1998
on the Delmarva Peninsula sug
gested broiler performance could
be influenced by multi-element
type inclusions. Taken together
bird age, and water hardness, pH
and dissolved oxygen had a signif
icant positive effect on body
weight (correlation coefficient =
0.91), along with low total bacteria
counts. Feed conversion was
improved when total bacteria
counts were low, potassium levels
were elevated and when the birds
were at a younger age (correlation
coefficient = 0.65). Mortality and
condemnation rates were lower
among younger birds, and when
their drinking water had low levels
of nitrates, bicarbonate, and total
bacteria. Mortality rate was also
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reduced when water potassium
levels were elevated.
While many of us are comfort
able reading a water meter to deter
mine if water consumption is nor
mal, most are less sure of them
selves interpreting a water
analysis. For many, the sheer num
ber of inclusions or contaminants
to analyze for is daunting. The
units may be unfamiliar. Most
inclusions are expressed in milli
grams per liter (mg/L), which is
equal to parts per million (ppm).
Some toxic substances may be
expressed in smaller units such as
parts per billion (ppb). Others have
unique units of measure such as
radon (pica curries per liter - pCi/
L), or bacteria, pH, hardness, con
ductance or turbidity.
The EPA has established maxi
mum contaminant levels (MCL) as
being harmful to human life. Com
pounds in this group include atra
zine, benzene, lead, and radon. But
one concern to both humans and
poultry are nitrate levels. Water
nitrates can come from natural
sources, and are a soil by-product
of agricultural fertilization or
human or animal waste. The prim
ary concern with young babies is
blue baby syndrome caused by a
reduced ability of the blood to car
ry oxygen.
Nitrate is converted to toxic nit
rite (NO 2 ) by GI tract bacteria. The
toxic nitrite binds blood hemoglo
bin displacing oxygen that might
otherwise supply oxygen to the
tissues. The MCL for humans is 10
mg/L nitrate-N.
Early research in the 1960 s sug
gested that chicks, turkey poults,
and hens could handle much high
er levels of nitrate and nitrite than
humans under controlled research
conditions when not confounded
with other contaminants. Chicks
could consume water with up to
200 and 300 ppm nitrite and nitrate
with little effect on hemoglobin,
mortality, or feed or water intake.
However, growth and liver vita-
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min A levels were depressed with
200 ppm nitrite. Poults appeared to
be more sensitive; when given 100
to 200 ppm nitrites, they showed a
reduced intake and growth with
depleted liver vitamin A and beta
carotene stores. Hens could handle
up to 200 and 300 ppm nitrite and
nitrate with no effect on rate of lay,
egg quality, intakes, or liver vita
min A or beta-carotene levels.
However, more recent work by
Grizzle et al., (1996,1997a,b) sug
gests that when nitrates are taken
together with other common water
contaminants they can have pro
found effects at much lower levels.
In one study with boilers given
water with only 5.2 mg/L nitrate-N
and low pH (5.75), feed and water
consumption, body weight, spleen,
liver and thymus weights were all
reduced compared to control birds.
In another study with boilers
given nitrate water plus E. coli or
Enterobacteria (500 and 100 col
ony forming units (CFU)/mL),
body weight was depressed along
with elevated thymus and bursa
weights, suggesting the birds were
mounting an immune response to
the bacteria. In a third study, broil
er breeders were given water with
10.4 mg/L nitrate-N along with
100 CFU/mL E. coli. This combi
nation of contaminants resulted in
reduced egg production, while
nitrate alone reduced egg hatcha
bility and vitamin A stores. These
pieces of evidence would suggest
that poultry are sensitive to low
nitrate levels when taken together
with contaminating bacteria or low
pH levels.
Secondary MCL listed by the
EPA are general indicators of
water quality. These include pH,
which should be in the normal
range of 6.5 to 8.5. Outside this
range the water may be so corro
sive that other contaminants will
be solubilized and carried to your
birds. Total coliform bacteria
should be less than 1 organism per
100 mL, with any counts suggest-
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ing some form of cither human or
animal fecal contamination of the
water supply. Total dissolved sol
ids should be no more than 500
mg/L, as this is indicative of grea
ter hardness and dissolved iron,
manganese and other unnecessary
inclusions. Sulfate levels should
be less than 250 mg/L as they can
impart a rotten egg taste and laxa
tive effect to the water. Nuisance
contaminants include chlorides,
copper, iron, manganese and iron
bacteria. They can impart cither
salty or bitter taste, or black, blue/
green or orange stains to your sinks
and other fixtures.
Other concerns with water
inclusions in the poultry house are:
• Chloride, pH, and hardness
having a negative impact on your
ability to deliver vaccine
effectively
•Hardness and salts reducing
the foaming and cleaning ability or
soaps and detergents
Significant inclusions that can
impact the nutrient requirements
of your birds, including sodium,
chloride, calcium, anions and
cations.
In summary, water quality var
ies greatly by region of the country
and season of the year. Sample
your water quarterly until you have
an understanding of seasonal var
iation, then sample at least annual
ly thereafter. Consider primary
MCLs first (nitrate-N - 10 mg/L).
Then consider general indicators
of water quality including: pH
range 6.6 to 8.5; colifonns and tot
al bacteria <l/100 mL; Total dis
solved solids <soomg/L and Sul
fate <250 mg/L.
Penn State University has
numerous publications available
from the Publications Distribution
Center (814-865-6713) to help
evaluate and protect your water
supply:
• EC345 Safeguarding Wells
and Springs from Bacterial Conta-
(Turn to Page D 8)